Standards for Purchasing Container-Grown

Landscape Trees

California Dept of Forestry and Fire Protection

These guidelines were developed to assist landscape professionals in specifying high-quality, container-grown, landscape trees. They were developed by arboricultural and horticultural professionals in California (Quality Tree Committee) comprised of municipal arborists, urban foresters, nurserymen, landscape architects and other landscape specialists. Depending on species, intended use, and availability of the trees, some elements of these guidelines may need to be modified.

I. PROPER IDENTIFICATION

All trees shall be true to name as ordered or shown on the planting plans and shall be labeled individually or in groups by species and cultivar (where appropriate).

II. COMPLIANCE

All trees shall comply with federal and state laws and regulations requiring inspection for plant disease, pests and weeds. Inspection certificates required by law shall accompany each shipment of plants. Clearance from the County Agricultural Commissioner, if required, shall be obtained before planting trees originating outside the county in which they are to be planted. Even though trees may conform to county, state, and federal laws, the buyer may impose additional requirements.

III. TREE CHARACTERISTICS AT THE TIME OF SALE OR DELIVERY

A. TREE HEALTH

As typical for the species/cultivar, trees shall be healthy and vigorous, as indicated by:

¤       foliar crown density

¤       length of shoot growth (throughout crown)

¤       size, color and appearance of leaves

¤       uniform distribution of roots in the container media

¤       appearance of roots

¤       absence of twig and/or branch dieback

¤       relative freedom from insects and diseases

Note: some of these characteristics cannot be used to determine the health of deciduous trees during the dormant season.

B. CROWN

1.     Form: Trees shall have a symmetrical form as typical for the species/cultivar and growth form.          

Central Leader: Trees shall have a single, relatively straight central leader and tapered trunk, free of co-dominant stems and vigorous, upright branches that compete with the central leader. Preferably, the central leader should not have been headed. However, in cases where the original leader has been removed, an upright branch at least ½ (one-half) the diameter of the original leader just below the pruning point shall be present.

Note: This section applies to single trunk trees grown with normal straightness, as typically used for street or landscape planting. This specification does not apply to plants that have been specifically cultured in the nursery or selected for unusual or unique shape, such as contorted forms, topiary forms, espalier forms, multi-stem, or clump forms.

Evaluating trunk and branch structure

Trunk structure: Shade trees that are large at maturity, and most evergreen trees, with the best quality have a dominant or central leader or trunk up to the top of the canopy. Shade trees of lesser quality have two or more leaders or trunks; they could split apart as they grow older. Small ornamental trees can have several trunks. (Note: Trees are drawn without leaves or small diameter branches to show their trunk and branch structure only. The end portions of large diameter branches are also cut off to save space in the illustration. These drawings apply to evergreens as well as deciduous trees).

b)     Potential Main Branches: Branches shall be distributed radially around and vertically along the trunk, forming a generally symmetrical crown typical for the species.

1.     Potential main branches shall be evenly spaced and have appropriate space between them.

2.     Branches shall be no larger than 2/3 (two thirds) the diameter of the trunk, measured 1" (one inch) above the branch.

3.     The attachment of scaffold branches shall be free of included bark.

2) Branch structure: The better quality, large-maturing shade trees (lower extreme left) have all branches less than about two-thirds the trunk diameter. Poor quality shade trees (lower left center) have larger upright branches. Trees such as crape myrtle and other small-maturing trees can have several trunks. Trees with extensive defects in branches such as cracks and included bark (lower right) represent lesser quality than trees free of these potential problems. Included bark can be seen between the two arrows below. Branches with bark inclusions are weakly attached to the tree and can split easy.

c) Temporary branches: Unless otherwise specified, small "temporary" branches should be present along the lower trunk below the first potential permanent branch, particularly for trees less than 1-1/2" (one and one-half inches) in trunk diameter. Temporary branches should be distributed around and vertically along the lower trunk. They should be no greater than 3/8" (three-eighths inch) in diameter and no greater than ½ (one-half) the diameter of the trunk at the point of attachment. Heading of temporary branches is usually necessary to limit their growth.

C. TRUNK

1.     Trunk diameter and taper shall be sufficient so that the tree will remain vertical without the support of a nursery stake.

2.     The trunk shall be free of wounds (except properly-made pruning cuts), sunburned areas, conks (fungal fruiting-bodies), wood cracks, bleeding areas, signs of boring insects, galls, cankers and/or lesions.

3.     Trunk diameter at 6" (six inches) above the soil surface shall be within the diameter range shown for each container size below:

Container                 Soil Volume*              Trunk Diameter (in)                                     Soil level from Container Top (in)

# 5                  0.6                   0.5' to 0.75'                           1.25' to 2'

# 15                 3.3                   0.75' to 1.5'                           1.75' to 2.75'

24 inch box      10.5                 1.5' to 2.5'                             2.25' to 3'

* Approximate soil volume in gallons

D. ROOTS

1.     The trunk, root collar (root crown) and large roots shall be free of circling and/or kinked roots. Soil removal near the root collar may be necessary in order to verify that circling and/or kinked roots are not present.

2.     The tree shall be well rooted in the container. When the trunk is carefully lifted both the trunk and root system shall move as one.

3.     The upper-most roots or root collar shall be within 1" (one inch) above or below the soil surface. The soil level should be within 2' (two inches) of the top of the container (see table above)

4.     When the container is removed, the root ball shall remain intact.

5.     The root ball periphery should be free of large circling and bottom-matted roots. The acceptable diameter of circling peripheral roots depends on species and size of root ball. The maximum acceptable size should be indicated for the species (if necessary).

6.     On grafted or budded trees, there shall be no suckers from the root stock.

 

E. MOISTURE STATUS

At time of inspection and delivery, the root ball shall be moist throughout, and the tree crown shall show no signs of moisture stress, as indicated by wilt. Roots shall show no signs of being subjected to excess soil moisture conditions, as indicated by root discoloration, distortion, death, or foul odor.

IV. INSPECTION

The buyer reserves the right to reject trees that do not meet specifications as set forth in these guidelines or as adopted by the buyer. If a particular defect or sub-standard element or characteristic can be easily corrected, appropriate remedies shall be required. If destructive inspection of root balls is to be done, the buyer and seller should have a prior agreement as to the time and place of inspection; minimum number and/or percentage of a species (cultivar) and as to who is financially responsibility for the inspected trees.

V. DELIVERY

The buyer should stipulate how many days notification are needed prior to delivery.

GLOSSARY:

Note: The word shall indicate a practice that is mandatory. The word should refers to a practice that is highly recommended.

Co-dominant branches- Those that are roughly equal in size to the trunk or branch on which they originate, or where two or more branches of relatively equal size fork or diverge from a common point. Co-dominate branches are usually vigorous and upright.

Crown- The portion of a tree above the trunk including the branches and foliage.

Cultivar- A named plant selection from which identical or nearly identical plants can be produced, usually by vegetative propagation or cloning.

Girdling root- A root that partially or entirely encircles the trunk and/or large buttress roots, which could restrict growth and downward movement of photosynthates.

Included bark- Bark that is entrapped in narrow-angled attachments of two or more stems, branches, or a stem and branch (es). Such attachments are weakly attached and subject to failure.

Kinked root- A taproot or a major root(s), which is sharply bent and can cause plant instability and reduction of movement of water, nutrients, and photosynthates.

Leader- The dominant stem or trunk that forms the apex of the tree.

Root collar- The flared lower portion of the base of a tree where the roots and stem merge. Also referred to as the "root crown" or "root flare."

Scaffold branches- In decurrent (round headed) trees, the branches that are among the largest on the tree and that form the main structure of the crown.

Stem- The axis (trunk of a central leader tree) of a plant on which branches are attached.

Temporary branch- A branch(s) that will remain on the tree for only a short period. Temporary branches will protect the trunk from sunburn damage and mechanical injury, and increase trunk caliper and taper thereby increasing trunk strength and flexibility. These branches are kept small and gradually removed as the trunk develops.

Tree Planting Specifications

California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection

1)     All tree planting stock to be planted using these "Planting Specifications" shall conform at minimum to the Specification Guidelines for Container-Grown Landscape Trees issued by the California Department of Forestry & Fire Protection (CDF); [Appendix E]

2)     Trees are to be planted in accordance to the landscape plan as well as adhering to current recognized horticultural practices.

3)     Trees shall be planted so that the root ball is equal to or slightly higher than the surrounding soil surface. Shallow is better than deep! Most people plant trees to deep. A hole three times the width of the root ball is often recommended but about one-and-one half the diameter is more common. Roots can become deformed by the edge of the hole in compacted or clayey soils if it is too small. The depth of the hole should be LESS than the height of the root ball, especially in compacted or natural wet soils. If the hole was inadvertently dug too deep, add soil and compact it with your foot. Breaking up compacted soil in a large area (out of the drip line of the tree) around the tree provides the newly emerging roots room to expand into loose soil. This will hasten root growth translating into quicker establishment.

4)     The trunk flare (root crown) shall be evident and free of any container soil and/or planting backfill. The trunk flare (root flare, root crown) is the abrupt swelling where roots join the trunk. This point should be visible at the top of the root ball. If the trunk flare is not visible, remove soil or media from the top of the ball until it is visible.

5)     The root flare shall be slightly above the surface of the surrounding soil at all times. When planting on a sloping site, the top-most root in the root ball shall be even with the grade on the uphill side of the tree. Site soil will need to be added on the downhill side to cover the sides of the root ball and to construct the soil berm to hold water. It is better to plant the tree a little high than to plant it too deep. If the tree is a little deep, tip it to one side and slide some soil under it; then tip it back the other way and slide some more soil under the root ball. Continue this until it is set at the appropriate depth. Once it is at the appropriate dept, place a small amount of soil around the root ball to stabilize it. Soil amendments should only be used as needed. The soil removed from the hole generally makes the best backfill.

6)     Tree stock will be protected from excessive vibration; avoiding being thrown or bounced off mobile equipment to the ground. Trees shall not be dragged, lifted, or pulled by the trunk or foliage parts in a manner that will loosen the roots in the ball. To avoid damage when setting the tree in the hole, lift the tree with straps or rope around the root ball, not be the trunk. Special strapping mechanisms need to be constructed to carefully lift trees out of large containers.

7)     Planted trees shall exhibit no circling root conditions or evidence of untreated root bound container stock. Check rooting structure of the container tree for possible root bound conditions and implement corrections if needed.

Pot bound (also called root bound) root balls from containers have large or many roots on the outer edge of the ball. It is best not to plant trees in this condition because roots could girdle the trunk as the tree grows. The tree could also become unstable later because few supporting roots grow from the outside curved portion of a root. If you must plant a tree with circling roots, these roots should be cut with a knife or pruning tool to prevent them from girdling the tree later, especially if they are near the top of the root ball. Make three or four slices in inch deep from the top of the root ball to the bottom. If in doubt about whether a root is large enough to cut, go ahead and cut it. Research shows that if there is a growth reduction from root pruning container grown trees at planting, the effect is negligible. Other work shows a reduction in shoot growth following root slicing if plants are under irrigation. Recent studies show that slicing the root ball from the top to bottom in several locations does not increase root growth after planting. It does; however, appear to enhance distribution of regenerated roots in the backfill soil profile. Instead of growing almost exclusively from the bottom of the root ball, slicing encourages root regeneration along the slices from the top to the bottom of the root ball. This could help establish the plant quicker by allowing the roots to quickly explore a larger volume of backfill soil.

8)     Trees shall all be planted in an upright position avoiding appearances of leaning. Before you begin backfilling, have someone view the tree from two directions perpendicular to each other to confirm the tree is straight. Fill in with some more backfill soil to secure the tree in the upright position. Once you add large amounts of backfill, it is difficult to reposition the tree.

9)     Planting tree site (hole) shall reflect proper techniques in the use of backfill soil materials to avoid evidence of large air pockets/voids within the backfill soil profile. Attempt to break up clayey soil clumps as much as possible. Do NOT step firmly on the backfill soil because this could compact it and restrict root growth, especially in clayey soil. Fill the hole around the root ball with soil. When the hole is filled with soil, the root ball should remain 2 to 3 inches above the backfill soil. Slice the shovel 20 to 30 times into the backfill to settle the soil. Add 10 to 20 gallons of water to the root ball and backfill. Fill in any holes or depressions with additional backfill soil. Do not firmly pack backfill soil in an attempt to eliminate air pockets because this could cause too much soil compaction. The water infiltrating the backfill soil will eliminate the large air pockets. The presence of small air pockets could even be of benefit because they could allow more air to reach the roots.

10)   All synthetic materials from around the tree trunk and root ball shall be removed and not evident within the backfill soil mix. String, rope, synthetic burlap, plastic, strapping, and other materials that will not decompose in the soil shall be removed at planting.

11)   Optional treatment: Cover the planted tree root ball area with mulch. Apply mulch material to at least a 6-foot diameter circle around the tree. Construct a berm out of mulch at the edge of the root ball only if the tree will be watered with a hose, bucket, or other high volume means. Constructing a berm in all other situations will not provide more water to the root system. Do not construct a berm from soil since this soil could end up over the root ball several months later. Water the mulch well after it is spread. Mulching: Weed and turf suppression during establishment is essential. Application of 4+ inches of mulch (after settling) is highly recommended to help discourage weeds. This area should be maintained during the establishment period at least two feet in diameter for each inch of tree trunk diameter (minimum diameter should be six feet for trees with a trunk diameter less than 3 inches). If you wish to place mulch over the root ball, apply only a thin layer over the outer half of the root ball. This keeps the trunk dry and allows rainwater, irrigation, and air to easily enter the root ball area.

12)   Support trunk staking that was supplied with the container tree has been removed. Many nursery vendors provide single or double support tree stakes to minimize trunk/crown damage during transporting activities. These support stakes left on the young tree after it is planted in the ground will often inflect wounds to the trunk and lower limbs of the young tree. This transport staking in not needed when 1) proper caliper in tree stock diameter is adhered to in the tree purchase process and/or 2) proper support staking discussed under item 13 below is utilized and installed correctly.

13)   Proper tree staking utilized, if necessary. If the root ball moves in the wind, emerging roots could break and the trees will establish slowly. Staking to hold a weak trunk upright should not be necessary on trees with a trunk diameter more than about 1.5 inches. If large trees require staking to prevent the trunk from bending, it probably indicates a lesser quality tree (reflecting a failure to meet minimum container nursery stock purchase specifications). Smaller trees might require staking until enough trunk strength develops. Trees could establish more quickly and develop a slightly stronger trunk and root system if they are NOT staked at the time of planting; assuming quality nursery stock is utilized. Should staking be utilized, the following staking systems will be considered as minimum standards: Double Stake Support System, ReddyStake Support System, Alternative Staking System as illustrated.

Reddy Stake Support System

Double Stake Support System

Alternative Staking Systems

Container and bare root trees often require stakes to hold them firm in the soil until roots become established. Root balls must remain firm and stable in the soil so the fragile new roots growing into the backfill soil are not broken as the root ball moves in windy weather.

Traditional staking systems are show in Figures 1-3. All three traditional systems require removal within one year after planting. Figures 4 and 5 show two systems used successfully by urban foresters throughout the country. Both of these inexpensive alternate systems eliminate the requirement to return to the tree to remove the staking system because they simply decay in a few years. Figure 6 shows an alternative, synthetic mulching material useful along streets and highway medians. Tree shelters or plastic tubes can increase survival of very small seedlings, but may have little or no use for standard sized planting stock. Their use has been associated with retarded trunk diameter growth, damage from birds, mechanical damage from trunks rubbing in the tube, ice and snow loading damage, reduced root systems, and delayed dormancy.

Figure 1: Three short stakes (2 shown) attached to the trunk with rubber or similar stretchable material. Stakes driven in as shown above may be better secured in the soil than those shown in Figure 2.	Figure 2: Three short stakes (2 shown) driven into soil in a traditional manner attached to the trunk with stretchable material. Use a wide strapping or rubber to secure stakes to trees.	Figure 3: Two or three (2 shown) 2 x 2 wood stakes driven through the backfill soil. Do not use wire in garden hose to secure trees because these can injure or girdle the tree.
Figure 4: Two or three (2 shown) wood dowels driven through edge of root ball. These do not have to be removed because they simply rot in place. There is no danger of this system girdling the trunk since nothing is attached to the trunk.	Figure 5: One horizontal 2 in. x 2 in. screwed to two vertical 2 x 2s against the side of the root ball. A second set is used on the other side if needed for larger trees.	Figure 6: Synthetic mulch, in this case made from rubber, can be used as an organic mulch replacement in areas where organic mulch could blow or float away.

MINIMUM MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS

1.         Provide a minimum of weekly watering during the dry season. Keep turf and ground covers at least 18 inches away from edge of root ball. Use some type of organic mulch to retain moisture.

2.         Provide developmental pruning for strong and characteristic structure at three (3) years old and again at seven (7) years old as a minimum service level.

3.          Provide needed pest control for the health of the tree.

4.          Provide required staking to ensure stability and proper growth. Remove the nursery stake and

             use 2 stakes placed outside the root ball and tie loosely with soft, flexible tree ties to allow

             for some movement. Other staking systems may be used if approved by a California

             Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CDF) Urban Forestry Field Specialist.                       

             Stake trees until the tree is capable of supporting itself in windy conditions, usually for one to

             two seasons.

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WATER USE CLASSIFICATION FOR LANDSCAPE SPECIES

A Guide to the Water Needs of Landscape Plants

Revised 4/1/94

L. R. Costello

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

COOPERATIVE EXTENSION

K. S. Jones

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

COOPERATIVE EXTENSION

RECOMMENDED WATERING PRACTICES:

-       Irrigate trees planted during the dry season 2 to 3 times a week for the first two months and twice a week thereafter until the rainy season. It may be necessary to water more frequently during particularly hot, dry weather.

-       Construct a watering berm around the planting hole and a smaller inner temporary berm immediately around the root ball to help retain water.

-       Apply water to both basins immediately after planting.

-       The inner berm will help keep the root ball moist until roots grow out into the fill soil and beyond. (usually 6 to 8 weeks)

-      Irrigate trees planted in the late winter to early spring on a weakly basis, when rain is lacking.

-       Begin watering twice a week with the approach of warm, dry weather - apply water to wet the soil to the planting hole depth. Keep the soil moist not wet. Too much water is just as bad as too little.

-       During the second year, water on a weekly basis beginning in the late spring continuing through early fall. Water the soil area under the expanding leafy canopy, allowing enough time for the water to penetrate the soil to a depth of 6 to 12". If drip irrigation is used, expand the system as the tree grows.

-      By the third year, monthly deep watering should suffice.

-       Many trees will thrive with 2 to 3 deep watering applied during the summer of the fourth or fifth year.

-       Some trees will survive the summer with no further irrigation.

-       Most trees will benefit from periodic, but infrequent deep watering, particularly during droughts.

-       It may be necessary to make adjustments in watering frequency and duration depending on soil type, weather, drainage and tree species.

GUIDELINES FOR STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG TREES

Structural pruning of young trees can improve branch spacing, strengthen branch attachment, reduce hazard potential, maintain or restore natural shape, and lower future maintenance costs. The most economic time to prune young trees is 3 to 5 years following planting; thereafter, pruning costs increase sharply.

At the time of planting, prune only to improve branch spacing, eliminate weakly attached, dead, damaged, rubbing or poorly formed branches. However, more significant pruning may be needed to correct crowded branching in trees topped at the nursery. If present, leave some branches along the lower trunk below the first permanent branch is desired to help shade and nourish the trunk. These 'temporary' branches will help increase stem taper and reduce the chance of sunburned bark. Cut them back to 8 to12 inch 'spurs' or to several buds to slow their growth and provide adequate clearance. Re-prune as necessary to keep them in bounds. Remove about ¹/₃ of the temporary branches each year, leaving the remainder well spaced. As a rule, remove no more than 25 percent of foliage of a new tree. Bear in mind that pruning removes the leaves that make food needed for growth and normal health. Over-pruning can retard establishment, reduces growth, impair health, increases susceptibility to pests, and can result in sunburned bark and/or dense sprouting.

After about 3 to 5 years, evaluate young trees for structure, clearance, defects, natural shape, and prune as needed. Emphasis of structural pruning should be placed on developing a strong, natural looking framework. First priority must be given to the removal of weakly attached (defective) branches - those with included bark at their union with the trunk or parent branch, and those that are crowded. Always preserve natural shape and branch structure.

To many untrained practitioners, pruning is the shortening of most if not all of a tree's branches presumably to control size and increase bushiness. Although this does stimulate several to many sprouts to form just below where a cut is made, the resulting shoots are fast growing, upright, crowded, poorly tapered and weakly attached. Furthermore, trees pruned in this manner generally grow back to their original height in several years. Another problem is that lateral growth along the lower portion of the branch and new shoots is poor. Thus, resulting branch structure and trees architecture is irreparably altered. Branches allowed to grow on their own, are generally shorter, well tapered and with normal lateral branching.

GUIDELINES:

¤       The primary goal of early structural pruning is to establish a tree's basic framework and enhance natural form, rather than reduce size or impose some unnatural growth form.

¤       Have a reason for removing each branch. Indiscriminant pruning ruins natural shape and architecture and creates structural problems.

¤       Begin by removing defective (weakly attached) branches, and those growing downward or in an undesirable direction. Remove dead, cankered, damaged, suppressed, and rubbing branches as well as vigorous, trunk sprouts.

¤       Use 'thinning cuts' to direct growth. A thinning cut removes a branch at its attachment point to another branch or to the trunk, or shortens it to a lateral branch at least ½ its diameter. This allows the remaining lateral to assume the terminal role, while preserving the tree's natural defenses, and encouraging quick closure.

¤       The term 'thinning' refers to the selective removal of branches, using 'thinning cuts' to improve structure, reduce height, spread, branch weight and wind resistance. Current pruning standards limit the removal of foliage to no more than 25 percent. This 'general rule' is intended to avoid excessive foliage removal. Size reduction using thinning is quite limited, thus trees that are too large for their allotted space should be replaced with more appropriate species. Thinning can also be used to suppress or stimulate branch growth, allowing the practitioner to direct growth or alter the growth pattern of a co-dominant stem.

¤       Trees that maintain a single, dominant central leader (excurrent growth form) throughout most of their lives, e.g., most conifers and a few hardwoods like liquidambar, usually need little pruning beyond removing or cutting back an occasional competing leader or removing lower laterals below the first permanent scaffold.

¤       Most trees, unless topped at the nursery or after planting, will have a single, dominant central leader for several or more years. Some trees, like Chinese Pistache, however, may have several leaders while they are very young and appear quite round-headed (decurrent growth form). In such cases, little needs to be done other than improve branch spacing and eliminate obvious defects.

Important Steps:

¤       When there are competing leaders, select the most dominant and upright leader and remove or cut back competing leaders to lower lateral branches growing more horizontally.

¤       Cut back or thin any lower laterals that threaten to compete with the leader.

¤       Most trees will eventually develop multiple leaders as they age, but it is a good idea to maintain a single dominant leader for as long as practical.

¤       Select the lowest permanent scaffold branch and cut back or remove competing branches. This position will be determined by the tree's location, e.g., along a street, over a sidewalk, in a park, or on a residential lot etc.

¤       Next, select vigorous, well-formed and relatively horizontal scaffold branches to form the basic framework of the tree. Prune out competing branches (those that are within 4 inches, directly above, below, opposite or to one side) the selected scaffold. Make your selection on the basis of size, freedom from defect, attachment strength, angle of growth, and radial and horizontal spacing. Some of the less vigorous competing branches and smaller shoots can be left because they provide energy and will probably be shed over time.

¤       Ideal scaffold spacing is about 12 to 18 apart for larger species and about 8 to 12 inches for smaller species. If necessary, spacing can be improved as by further pruning as the tree grows. Uniform spacing is seldom achievable, so don't worry too much about it. It is more important to make sure that the scaffold's attachment is strong, and that branch distribution is relatively symmetric.

¤       Ideally, scaffold branches should be about 50 percent of the size of the trunk. Attachment strength decreases as the size ratio exceeds about 75 percent.

¤       Keeping the size of lateral branches to less than ½ the diameter of the trunk or branches from which they grow, is an important goal.

¤       Branches that are the same or nearly the same diameter as the trunk or parent branch they arise from are called co-dominant stems. They usually form forks or V-crotches, which are prone to splitting. This potential problem can be corrected by removing one of the forks or pruning one of them back to a lower lateral, or thinning the foliage along one of the branches about 20 percent. This will suppress growth in the pruned branch while invigorating growth in the un-pruned branch, ultimately, changing the size ratio.

¤       It may also be necessary to thin foliage or branches along scaffolds to improve the branch/trunk size ratio.

¤       Avoid removing interior foliage and lower lateral along the scaffolds.

¤       For stability, ½ of a tree's foliage should originate in the lower ²/₃ of the tree.

When removing an unwanted branch, there are several basic rules to follow:

¤       Remove an unwanted branch at the trunk or parent branch where it arises without leaving a stub.

¤       Leave the branch collar (swollen area at the base) intact.

¤       Do not cut branches flush to the trunk.

The practice of `topping' or severely pruning young trees especially bare root trees, destroys natural structure, and can delay establishment.